Chicken Leg Dissection

The objective of the chicken leg dissection was to view the muscle and skin tissue, bones and tendons, and how they all function together. I wanted to observe the surrounding fat and its purpose, along with contemplate the bone shapes, what they contain inside, and the joint types and function.

Procedure

The first step was to observe the skin and its tissue, how it connects to the muscle beneath. The outside skin tissue of the chicken was rough and thin. It detached easily on the fattier parts, but was harder to detach towards the bonier parts of the leg. The adipose connective tissue underneath was almost clear and in some places, white.

This picture shows the chicken leg with the skin attached.

I next cut away the skin and tissue to expose the fat underneath and the muscle. The fat was clumpy and white, slimy. It insulates the body and store extra nutrition. Cells that store fat are called lipids. I see multiple muscles. I can tell that there are more than one because they are striated and it looks like in some places, the striation is going at a slightly different direction than the other, and it is layered underneath itself.

This picture shows the skin coming off the muscle, and the tissue that connects it. The white clumps around the muscle near the bottom of the picture are fat.

This is the chicken leg with all the skin and underlying tissue removed. I noticed a big muscle in the middle and littler ones toward the left.

More of the fat around the leg.

Next I tried to find the tendons. One was easy to find. The tendons were smooth, firm but resilient. Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles, and they are used for body temperature regulation and contraction. I removed the muscle by cutting the tendon and peeled the muscle away from the bone. I was able to get a good view of the different connection points in the tendons and how they went into the muscle. I removed all the muscle and uncovered the bone.

The white glossy part I'm pointint to is a tendon.

Upon cutting the tendon, you can see here the different attachment points where the tendon attached to the bone (little vein-like protrustions)

Upon operating it, I found that the leg joint was a ball-and socket joint, it revolved around completely and had a ball like head that fit perfectly into a socket- like part of the bone. The movement demonstrated is called rotation. The ligaments were hard to find and uncover. I cut them at the joint and pulled the bone out of the joint. The texture of the ends of the bone were smooth. The tissue that connects therm are dense fibrous connective tissue. If the cartilage at the ends of the bone were to wear out, the chicken in this case would get arthritis. Regular exercise preserves a healthy range of motion for the chicken.

This is the chicken bone. The part that I'm holding is the joint head.

This is another joint head with a barely visible point of connection (if you look into the hole of the chicken leg in my right hand, you can see where the joint fit in).

If I were to look inside the bone with a neat cut, I would be able to see the central cavity that contains the bone marrow. The bone marrow produces megakaryoblasts, lyumphoblasts, monoblasts, myeoblasts and eyrthroblasts.

In conclusion, I was able to properly observe and identify the connective tissue, muscles, bone, joints, tendons and cartilage of a chicken leg. I was able to identify how the muscles connect to the bones through tendons, how the bones connect at the cartilage and what type of joint was covered.

Unit 2

Chapter 17
The Mitotic Cell Cycle
Meiosis
Jim's General Idea

Chapter 18
Cancer

Chapter 19
Gregor Mendel's Basic Rules
Maternal Inheritance
Incomplete Dominance and Codominance
Genetics and Inheritance

Chapter 20
The Polymerase Chain Reaction
Transgenic Organisms and Gene Therapy

Chapter 17

The Mitotic Cell cycle

All cells in the human body divide by mitosis with the exception of gametes (sperm and eggs formed at the testes and ovaries). All body cells (except gametes) have 46 chromosomes in the form of 23 pairs of chromosomes. Gametes have 23 chromosomes. Gametes are haploid. The mitotic cell cycle generates diploid cells, or cells containing chromosomes that come in pairs. DNA is duplicated and split between two daughter nuclei, and the nucleus then divides. Nuclear division (otherwise known as mitosis) consists of the phases: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase followed by cytoplasmic division (or cytokinesis). Cytokinesis is where the cytoplasm divides, two new daughter cells form and the process starts over.

During interphase, the cell grows and synthesizes. Gap 1 (G1) is the long growth period between cell divisions. Synthesis (S) of DNA for cell division occurs before Gap 2 (G2), or the last phase of growth before cell division. Interphase is all about cell growth and the cell’s metabolic activity.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/fluorescencemitosis/interphase3large.html

National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, March 7th 2012

Prophase is the next phase. Here, the mitotic spindle forms and the centrioles migrate to the opposite poles in the spindle. Chromatin (multiple chromatids) condenses into visible chromosomes. The nuclear membrane dissolves and the metabolic activity decreases.

http://www.microscopyu.com/staticgallery/featuredmicroscopist/deerinck/deerinckimage13.html

Nikon Microscopy March 7 2012

During metaphase, the chromosomes meet at the cell’s equator, forming a single line between the cell poles.

http://www.visualphotos.com/image/1x6011949/mitosis_metaphase_immunofluorescent_lm

Visual Photos March 7th, 2012

At anaphase, the duplicate chromosomes separate and microtubules pull the daughter chromosomes toward the cell poles.

http://www.visualphotos.com/image/1x6011950/mitosis_anaphase_immunofluorescent_lm

Visual Photos March 7th 2012

At telophase, the spindle formed in prophase pulls apart. The nuclear membrane forms and the chromosomes uncoil and turn back into chromatin.

http://www.visualphotos.com/image/1x6011951/mitosis_telophase_immunofluorescent_lm

Visual Photos, March 7th 2012

During cytokinesis, a ring of filaments forms at the middle of the cell and tightens. A cleavage furrow forms and two identical daughter cells (diploid cells) form as the ring pinches them apart.

Meiosis

Gametes, or haploid cells, are formed in the ovaries and testes in the process of meiosis. Meiosis reduces chromosome numbers in half, producing haploid daughter cells.

Meiosis 1

Prophase 1 consists of duplicated homologous chromosomes of a particular gene that pair up and swap segments in the synapse (process of crossing over)

In metaphase 1, homologous pairs of chromosomes line up and a double line of chromosome pairs forms.

During anaphase 1, the pairs of chromosomes are separated but the duplicated chromosomes stay intact.

Telphase 1 and cytokinesis yields two haploid daughter cells but chromosomes are still in their duplicated state.

http://legacy.owensboro.kctcs.edu/gcaplan/anat2/notes/APIINotes2%20meiosis.htm

APII Notes Home page, March 7^th 2012

Meiosis 2 yields 4 haploid daughter cells. In males, 4 viable, functional sperm from from each cell. In females, however, unequal cytokenesis during meiosis yields one egg and three polar bodies from each cell entering meiosis. Only the egg is viable.

Jim's General Idea

Jim's General Idea consists of three steps. First is DNA replication, or the process of copying DNA prior to cell division (making exact copies of all 46 chromosomes, or 23 pairs)

A gene is a short segment of DNA, which contains the basic code for protein. Genes are the smallest unit of DNA.

In replication, the DNA strands uncoil, or unzip much like a zipper. The DNA nucleotides are positioned and linked by polymerase. There is a specific pairing method (such as A-T, C-G) to assure the exact copy. The centromere holds the duplicate daughter chromosomes together. There are 2 meters of DNA per cell.

https://confluence.crbs.ucsd.edu/display/CS/DNA+Replication

Cell Sculpt, March 7^th, 2012

The cells can mutate, however. Alterations, really mistakes, in the DNA code, most frequently during DNA replication cause mutations. These are caused by chemical and physical forces. Though there can be silent effects (no effect), most mutations are harmful, resulting in cell death or cancer. Some can be beneficial as well. Some of these mutations are repaired by enzymes.

Second is the transcription process, or the copying of DNA of a gene into mRNA, which is messenger Ribonucleic Acid. This process occurs within the nucleus.

The DNA with the gene region unwinds. RNA polymerase assists in copying base sequence in RNA nucleotides. A primary transcript is made, including introns (intervening sequence) and exons (which carry the genetic info). The introns are edited out and the exons are specified appropriately. A messenger RNA strand is produced.

The Genetic Code:

In the nucleus of each cell is a DNA molecule, which is like the reference section for the whole cell. The code contains 3-letter words, each giving instructions for one amino acid. The amino acids then are put together and build polypeptides.

Several different codons encode each amino acid, but methionine (AUG) is the start codon in RNA. TAC is the start codon in DNA. The genes can end in UAA, UAG, or UGA.

Third is translation, or the process of converting mRNA into one or more proteins. This process occurs in the cytoplasm at ribosomes. Along with mRNA, tRNA (transfer RNA), relatively small RNA molecules that escort amino acids to the ribosomes (site of translation). This contains sites for mRNA and incoming amino acid-tRNA. It also contains the enzymes/factors that cayalyze the peptide bond formation.

Initiator tRNA (carrying methionine) and ribosomal subunits form an initiation complex. Next, during elongation, tRNA brings specific amino acids to developing protein chain, which elongates one amino acid at a time. During termination, the stop codon terminates the chain and protein is released.

Chapter 18

Normal cells have regulatory mechanisms that maintain an appropriate rate of cell division using an “internal clock”, horomones, inhibitory signals from nearby cells, and check points. In general, they remain in one location throughout their entire lifespan.

Signals from within the cells are called internal cell signals. Cyclins are present during certain stages of the cell cycle. Destroying cyclin at the right time is crucial for cell progression.

External cell signals affect the cell cycle as well. EGF (epidermal growth factor) stimulates skin near an injury to finish cell cycle and repair injury. Estrogen stimulates the lining of the uterus to divide and prepare for the egg. Cells divide about 70 times in culture, then die. Programmed cell death is called apoptosis.

Apoptosis is unleashed by internal or external signals, It helps keep the number of cells at appropriate level. Remaining cell fragments are engulfed by white blood cells.

Cancer may result from imbalance due to cell mutation. Cancer is defined as a disease of the cell cycle in which cellular reproduction occurs repeatedly without end, so the cells do not die off. Types of cancer are carcinoma (cancer of the epithelial tissue lining organs), sarcoma (cancer in the muscle or connective tissue) and leukemia, which is cancer of the blood (connective tissue).

Cancer cells lack differentiation. They interfere with body function. They may divide repeatedly, have abnormal nuclei with abnormal numbers of chromosomes. They form tumors and do not respond to inhibitory signals. The cells travel to start new tumors and from new blood vessels to nourish themselves (metastis). Carcinogenesis is the development of cancer.

http://www.wentek.com/jean/research.htm

University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center Marc h 7 2012

Tumors, also known as neoplasm, are a discrete mass of cells resulting from hyperplasia (a substantial increase in the rate of cell division.) Benign tumors are non cancerous. They remain in one location, defined by a single mass.

Cancerous cells, however are formed by displasia, an abnormal change in cell structure, considered a precancerous state. Cancerous tumors have abnormal cell structure and have loss of regulation of cell growth.

Malignant tumors invade normal tissue and compromises organ functions. Secondary malignant tumors may develop.

Cancer develops through mutated or damaged proto-oncogenes, which would regulate and promote cell growth, differentiation or adhesion, turning into oncogenes. It could also occur through damage or deactivation of tumor suppressor genes. Genes in DNA repair during replication may also be mutated.

Things that could lead to cancer include viruses such as HPV, Hepatitis B and C, and HIV. Chemicals in the environment, tobacco, radiation, dietary factors, and free radicals can also lead to cancer. It is the job of the immune system, generally to defend against cancer. Cancer cells may not be recognized as our bodily cells and can be destroyed.

Tumor Imaging, such as x-rays, PET, MRI, genetic testing and enzyme tests for cancer makers are now available for detection of cancer. Popular treatments include surgery and chemotherapy while less popular treatments include magnetism, photodynamic therapy, immunotherapy, starving of the cancer and molecular treatments that target oncogenes.

Skin cancers include basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma. Basal cell carcinoma (the basal cells are in the base layer of epithelium) doesn't usually metastasize, but should be removed. Squamous cell carcinoma metastasizes slowly. The deadliest is melanoma, metastasizing quickly, can include asymmetry, irregular shape, variance in color, be greater than 6 mm, and can evolve. Melanoma is the cancer of the malnocytes, which produce melanin. Fortunately, it is the least common of the skin cancers.

http://www.webmd.com/melanoma-skin-cancer/melanoma

WebMD, March 7^th 2012

Lung cancer, usually brought on by smoking, is hard to detect, so it's usually more advanced when detected. Symptoms are easy to mistake with bronchitis or pneumonia or just coughing.

Breast cancer risk factors include genetics. Two different genes (BRCA1 and BRCA2 or Breast Cancer 1 and 2) and age, such as early onset of menstruation and late menopause or obesity after. Oral contraceptives and hormone replacement after menopause also contribute to breast cancer.

Prostate cancer is most common in men after 50. Diagnosis would include a rectal exam and a blood test for PS (prostate specific antigen). Treatment includes surgery, radiation therapy, and hormones.

Symptoms of colon and rectal cancer include blood in stool and rectal bleeding. Risk factors can include obesity, smoking, family history, low fiber diets, high fat diets and others. Screening tests can detect it early.

Chapter 19

Chromosomes are structures within the nucleus composed of DNA and protein. Humans have 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes (or autosomes) and one pair of sex chromosomes for gender. Homologous chromosomes look alike in shape, pattern and size, but are not identical. One member of each pair of chromosomes is inherited from each parent.
Alleles are alternate forms of genes from mutation. Homologous chromosomes might have different alleles of genes. There are two different types of alleles: dominant and recessive. Dominant alleles mask or suppress the expression of its complimentary allele. Recessive alleles will not be expressed next to dominant alleles, contrary to dominant alleles which are always expressive. Recessive alleles are heterozygous. They will only be expressed if the individual is homozygous for the recessive allele. Homozygous chromosomes contain two identical alleles while heterozygous chromosomes have two different alleles.

Genotypes (set of alleles) are the base of phenotypes, the observable traits such as hair and eye color, etc. Phenotypes are determined by inheritated alleles and the environment.

The Punnet square can predict inheritance using the parent phenotypes and four combinations of their genotypes.

Gregor Mendel's Basic Rules

Gregor Mendel worked with pea plants in the 1850s to determine genetics and inheritance rules. His Law of Segregation states that gametes carry one allele of each gene. His Law of independent assortment states that genes for different traits are separated in meiosis. This law only applies if two genes are on different chromosomes.

Maternal inheritance

Mitochondria convert molecules into energy within the cell. They also contain some DNA. Only females can pass on mitochrondrial mutations to their offspring because eggs contribute mitochondria to the embryo.

Incomplete Dominance and Codominance

In incomplete dominance, the heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between that of either zygote. For example, wavy hair is the product of a parent with straight hair and a parent with curly hair.

Codominance- both alleles are expressed. For example, in ABO blood types, the A and B genes are codominant.

Genetics and Inheritance

Polygenetic inheritance is the inheritance of phenotypic traits that depend on genes such as eye and skin color, height and shape, etc.

Sex chromosomes are the 23^rd pair of chromosomes. X and Y carry different genes. Males have and X and Y chromosome while females have two X chromosomes. Males carry half of each X and Y gamete and determine the sex of their offspring.

Sex-linked Interitance:

Males express the disease more than females, but is passed onto the male offspring through the mother (fathers cannot pass the gene). These can include hemophilia, duchenne muscular dystropy and color blindness.

Failure of homologous chromosomes or sisster chromatids separating during meiosis can lead to downs syndrome, or trisomy 21. It can also lead to alterations of the sex chromosome, such as trisomy-X syndrome, turner syndrome, etc. Alterations in the chromosomes can lead to other syndroms, such as cri-du-chat syndrome (when a piece of a chromosome breaks off). This is known as a deletion. A translocation happens when the broken piece attaches to another chromosome.

Chapter 20

Biotechnology is the technical application of biological knowledge for human purposes. Genetic engineering is the manipulation of genetic makeup of cells or organisms.

The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

The Polymerase Chain Reaction is used to amplify DNA to make millions of copies. Heating and cooling allows the reaction to happen rapidly.

During DNA fingerprinting, the DNA gets amplified by PCR, then gets cut with restriction enzymes. Then it is separated by gel electgrophoresis by size. The enzymes will cut the molecules where the sequences between individuals are not the same.

Transgenic Organisms and Gene Therapy

Transgenic Organisms have been developed with good intentions. For example, transgenic bacteria produce insulin, human growth horomone, vaccines, etc. The plants, which resist freezing, synthesize horomones among other functions. Though much more difficult to introduce DNA into animal cells, animals have been used in research and can produce milk from which “pharm” drugs can be produced.

SCID, or sever combine immunodeficiency is an immune disorder in which the T-lymphocytes have the inability to recognize specific proteins with their receptors. Gene has helped this. therapy

I conducted three experiments using milk, juice and carrots. The objective was to see the change in milk after sitting in a warm, dark place in an open container for three days. The juice experiment objective was to see what would happen if 1/6 of a cup of cherry juice was added to two cups of three glasses at water, each at a different temperature. The objective of the carrot experiment was to see the outcome of the carrot size after sitting in a glass of salt water as opposed to a glass of fresh water for 24 hours.

Part 1: Milk

My hypothesis for the milk experiment: I think after the three days are over, the milk will turn a yellowish color from the bacteria after being at room temperature. Depending on how warm its storage place is (a microwave), I believe the milk may start to spoil and possibly have signs of becoming solid or having an unpleasant smell. The reason I believe this will happen is the popular outcome of spoiled milk, as it generally has a chunky consistency.

Process:

1. Add ½ cup of milk to a shallow glass
2. Notes, pictures, observations
3. Store in a warm, dark place for three days.
4. Observe (any) changes and take pictures of milk every day.

Notes and observations:

Day 1: The milk is fresh, so it has no noticeable abnormal characteristics.

Day 3:  The milk has a very slight but sure odor and the color seems a little bit darker, but it may have been the lighting.

I believe the milk didn't do much probably due to the temperature of its storing space, the microwave. The microwave, seemed like it would be a slightly higher temperature at first due to how much of an enclosed space it is with the rubber around the door to let air from getting in or out. However, it seemed to be closer to room temperature than anything. Had the microwave been warmer, or had I had a warmer space to store the milk, I think the results would have been different, and perhaps my hypothesis wouldn't have been so far from the truth.

Part 2: Juice

My hypothesis for the juice experiment: I think the juice when added to hot water will only become less concentrated, mixing with the water completely. When added to ice cold water, I believe it may separate at first impact because in the case of any drink with ice in it, the ice will melt, leaving a watery separation on the top of the drink until manually mixed in. When added to room temperature water, I believe that it will slightly separate, then mix completely.

Process:

1. Pour one glass full of two cups of hot water.
2. Pour 1/6 of a cup of cherry juice over the hot water.
3. Notes, pictures, observations.
4. Pour one glass full of two cups of ice cold water.
5. Pour 1/6 of a cup of cherry juice over the cold water.
6. Notes, pictures, observations
7. Pour one glass full of two cups of room temperature water.
8. Pour 1/6 of a cup of cherry juice over the room temperature water.
9. Notes, pictures, observations.

Notes and Observations:

When added to hot water, the juice did mix in completely with the water.

When added to the cold water, the juice separated as it sunk to the bottom of the glass and left a layer of ice water at the top.

When added to the room temperature water, the effect was similar to the ice water, but the layer of water at the top was more noticeable as the juice sort of sunk to the bottom, leaving a cool cloudy effect for longer afterward than it did with the cold and hot water.

I was correct for the most part in all my hypotheses for the juice experiment with the exception of the room temperature juice and water. It was definitely a surprise to see how the juice clouded up in the water, then went toward the bottom of the cup.

Part 3: Carrot

My hypothesis for the carrot is that the carrot that is in the salt water will expand because salt retains water. I think the carrot in the fresh water might expand as well, but not as significantly as the salt in the salt water.

Process:

1. Pour one cup full of two cups of salt water
2. Pour one cup full of two cups of fresh water
3. Cut carrot in half, measure each half
4. Tie string around cut half of each carrot and place cut end down in each glass
5. Leave for 24 hours
6. Observe, take notes, pictures

Notes and Observations:

To my surprise, my saltwater carrot shrunk. The string wasn't as tight and the measurement was almost 1/3 of an inch smaller. Not a lot happened with my freshwater carrot, save for what looked almost like a centimeter or two of growth. The string was still very tight.

The saltwater carrot before the experiment:

The freshwater carrot before the experiment:

The saltwater carrot after the experiment:

The freshwater carrot after the experiment:

Clearly I was mislead about the salt most likely making the carrot retain the water around it. I pretty much figured not a whole lot would happen to the fresh water carrot, but the centimeters of growth were still a little shocking.

Unit One Compilation

Chapter One

Life:

All living things have a different molecular structure than nonliving things. They are composed of cells, have the ability to reproduce and procreate and maintain an internal equilibrium called homeostasis (requiring temperature regulation, internal blood flow, etc) . They require raw materials from the environment and energy from the sun to live. Living things also involve populations capable of evolving. They respond to their external environment to thrive.

Further Characteristics of life: Separated into groups

Domain Archaea:

Consists of single celled prokaryotes

The Kingdom Archaea

Domain Bacteria

Consists of single celled prokaryotes

The Kingdom Bacteria

Domain Eukarya

Consist of single or multicellular eukaryotes.

Kingdoms Animalia, Plantae, Fungi and Protista

*Prokaryotes contain no membrane-bound nucleus while eukaryotes do

-Humans are part of the Kingdom Animalia. They mammals, have vertibrates and are further considered “homo sapiens”, a type of primate meaning “thinking man”.

Characteristics of the Human

-Bipedalism- the ability to walk upright on two feet

-Opposable thumbs, have the ability to grab things between thumb and forefinger

-Large Brains for body size

-Language, both written and spoken

http://www.visualphotos.com/image/1x3747397/hand_human_hand_artwork_showing_the_bones_of_the

The Organization of Human Biology

Starts with molecules and atoms. Tissues are made of molecules and atoms. Organs consist of tissues. Organ systems contain the organs of the body. An organism (ex. Human) consists of the organ system. The organisms make up a population, where a community of populations is contained by an ecosystem, which belongs to the biosphere.

The Scientific Method:

Observe and generalize- observe and collect data

Hypothesis- Predict the Outcome

Predict the outcome- Use deductive reasoning

Experiment and observe- Conduct experiment

Modify Process and Repeat if necessary- Make necessary changes to make possible new outcome

Chapter Two

Chemistry is the study of matter. Matter consists of anything that has mass and occupies space. It is made up of elements

Structure of an Atom:

The atom contains a nucleus at the center, which is composed of protons (positive charge, have mass) and neutrons (neutral charge, has mass). Surrounding the nucleus is the shell, which consists of electrons (negative charge, has no mass)

Atoms:

-Have an atomic number, the number of protons. In an electrically neutral atom, the number of protons will equal the number of electrons.

-An atomic symbol, one or two letters. Generally the first two letters of the latin name for the element.

-An atomic mass- roughly equal to the number of protons plus the number of neutrons

Isotopes:

-Have the same atomic number, atomic mass

-Unstable isotopes are called radioisotopes, which give off energy in the form of radiation

-Radioisotopes can be useful for carbon dating, power supply for implants such as pacemakers, cancer treatment, and diagnostic imaging.

Energy is the capacity to do work. Potential energy is energy that is stored. Kinetic energy is energy in motion. Potential energy can transform into kinetic energy.

-Electrons-potential energy. The farther away from the nucleus the shell is, the more potential energy the electrons contain. Inner shells have less. Atoms are more stable when the outer shell is full of electrons with potential energy. Atoms will interact with other atoms to get more electrons to fill their outer shells if they need to.

Chemical bonds hold atoms together.

-Covalent bonds are strong. They are made when atoms share electrons. Electrons that are shared equally create non-polar covalent bonds. Electrons that are not shared equally create polar covalent bonds.

Ions:

An ion is an electronically charged atom or molecule. When an atom/molecule loses electrons, it makes a positively charged ion. So when an atom/molecule gains electrons, a negatively charged ion is formed. The ionic bond is what happens when oppositely charged ions bond. Ionic bonds are not as strong as covalent bonds, but not as weak as hydrogen bonds.

http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/I/ionic_bond.html

Hydrogen Bonds form between polar molecules. Polar molecules are electrically neutral, and they have polar bonds. Hydrogen bonds have a weaker bond.

Water:

Water can absorb and hold heat, so it helps regulate body temperature. The molecules are polar.

Solvents are liquids that substances dissolve in, solutes are dissolved substances.

-Polar molecules that are attracted to water are hydrophilic while nonpolar neutral molecules that don't do not dissolve in water are hydrophobic.

Acids, bases, and the pH Scale:

Acids increase hydrogen ions while bases lower them. The pH scale measures hydrogen concentration by determining whether the pH is at 7 (neutral), above it (acidic) or below it (alkaline). Buffers minimize change in pH and maintain it.

Carbon forms four covalent bonds and can form either single or double bonds. It also makes up 18% of the body.

Carbohydrates:

-Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, glactose, ribose, deoxyribose).

They can be linked together (dehydration synthesis) to form disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, and lactose)

-Polysaccharides, thousands of monosaccharides joined together (starch, glycogen, cellulose)

Lipids:

Triglycerides:energy storage, fats and oils

Phospholipids:cell membrane

Steroids: carbon based structures, such as cholesterol and estrogen/testosterone

Proteins:

Amino acids

Enzymes (biological catalysts- speed up chemical reactions, but aren't altered)

DNA/RNA store genetic info, contain nucleotides (building blocks)

http://www.strategosinc.com/toyota_corporate_culture.htm

RNA- single stranded, nucleotide contains ribose, nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil)

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a nucleotide. It is the universal energy source.

Chapter Three

Cells:

Human cells are eukaryotic, so they have a plasma membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm (fluid in the membrane), and organelles. Cells are microscopic, they need to be seen with either a light microscope, transmission electron microscope, or scanning electron microscope. They have a high surface:volume ratio that helps the process of diffusion in that they can easily absorb nutrients easily and dispose of wastes. They can also stick together to form tissue.

The plasma membrane of a cell is selectively permeable, so some substances can go into and out of the cell while others cannot. It is a lipid bilayer composed of phospholipids, cholesterol to make it more rigid, proteins to help transport substances into and out of the cell, and carbohydrates.

During passive transport into and out of the membrane, the cell does not use its energy. The processes of diffusion and osmosis take place. The concentration gradient powers it, allowing diffusion through the lipid layer and protein channels. However, the cell must use energy during active transport. It uses a membrane protein to transport it and requires either ATP or another energy. During bulk transport, endocytosis (substances enter the cell) and exocytosis (substances leave the cell) take place. The only way for substances to get into and out of the cell is through information sent to the receptor sites on receptor proteins on the cell.

The Sodium Potassium Pump:

The sodium potassium pump maintains the cell volume, using ATP to expel 3 sodium ions for every 2 potassium ions in the cell. Increasing the cell volume means an increase in water in the cytoplasm, allowing more sodium inside the cell. Decreasing it means less water and expelling the excess sodium.

Tonicity is the relative concentration of solutes in two fluids. Isotonic tonicity requires the extracellular and intracellular ionic concentrations be equal so that the cells volume stays normal. Hypertonic tonicity will kill the cell. The extracellular ionic concentration exceeds the intracellular ionic concentration and water diffuses out of the cell, leaving it to shrivel up and die. Hypotonicity yields the opposite effect, wher the intracellular ionic concentration exceeds the extracellular ionic concentration and water will diffuse into the cell, bursting it.

Structure of a cell:

http://mwsu-bio101.ning.com/profiles/blogs/2263214:BlogPost:2564

The nucleus holds genetic information and ultimately controls the cell.

Ribosomes float in the cytoplasm and bind to the outer surface of the endoplasmic reticulum. They synthesize proteins.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) can either have ribosomes (rough ER) and manufactures protein, or not have ribosomes (smooth ER) where it synthesizes lipids and packages the protiens.

The golgi apparatus refines the synthesized products and ships them to locations with in the cell or to the cell membrane.

There are several kinds of vesicles, such as endocytic, secretory and shipping and storage. Also, peroxisomes (detoxifying enzymes) and lysosomes (digestive enzymes)

The mitochondria, generates the cell. It generates ATP.

Fat, triglycerides store energy in animals.

Glycogen stores carbohydrates, also an energy storage.

Support and Movement of Cells:

Cytoskeleton for support

Cilia (short projections) used for movement and flagella (one long projected tail) for movement.

Centrioles

Anabolism, the building of cells may require energy or ATP. It requires enzymes and stores cell energy.

Catabolism breaks the molecules down, also requiring enzymes. But unlike anabolism, it may release energy and accesses energy storage. Glucose is used for energy in the cell. It generates ATP and provides the cell with energy using cellular respiration, consisting of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle and the electron transport system. Cellular respiration uses oxygen and produces carbon dioxide to make ATP. Other energy sources include glycogen, fats and proteins.

Chapter Four

Tissues are made up of cells.

Epithelial Tissues line body cavities and surfaces. There are simple (single layered) epithelial tissues, generally lining glands and respiratory, digestive and reproductive systems. There are also stratified (more than one layer) epithelial cells to provide protection. The basement membrane attaches the epithelial layer to other tissue layers. Junctions hold the cells of the epithelial tissue together. In cases of adhesion junctions and gap junctions, there is movement between the cells, but in tight junctions, nothing can move between the cells.

http://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/cells_tissues_membranes/tissues/epithelial.html

Connective Tissue supports and cushions softer organs, and as its title suggests, connects. It also stores fat and produces blood cells. Fibrous connective tissue is elastic and strong. It includes fibroblasts, macrophages, lymphocytes and neutrophils. There are four types of fibrous connective tissue: lose, dense, elastic and reticular. Specialized connective tissues includes cartilage, bone, blood and adipose tissue

Muscle Tissue is flexible so it can be moved.

Skeletal muscle is voluntary and has more than one nucleus.

Cardiac and smooth muscle are involuntary and have only one nucleus.

Nervous Tissue transmits electrical impulses with its neuron.

Organs:

Organs are made up of tissue

Organ systems are groups of organs that perform the same function, such as digestive, respiratory, cardiac, etc.

The anterior body cavity is comprised of the thoracic and abdominal cavities while the posterior cavity contains the cranial and spinal cavity. Serous membranes line these cavities. Serous membranes reduce friction between organs.

Mucous membranes lubricates surfaces of organs

Synovial membranes line spaces in between moving joints

Cutaneous membrane is the skin

The skin:

Prevents dehydration, protects the body, regulates body temperature, makes vitamin D and provides the body with sensation to the touch.

The epidermis is the outer layer of the skin, consisting of stratified squamous epithelial cells. The dermis, right below the epidermis supports tissues. The accessory structures of the dermis include hair shafts and follicles, smooth muscle (attached to the hair follicle), oil/sebaceous glands to moisten the skin, sweat glands, blood vessels and sensory nerve endings.

Homeostasis:

The negative feedback control system helps maintain homeostasis using body temperature (controlled variable), sensors (the thermometers), the control center (the hypothalamus), and effectors (blood vessels, sweat glands, skeletal muscles).